Long before the Roman Empire, a remarkable civilization thrived in central Italy. Most people have never heard of it.

Here are five things to know about the Etruscans and their enduring legacy.

1. Many things we think of as Roman are actually Etruscan.

The Etruscans flourished between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC in present-day Tuscany and throughout the Italian peninsula. Thanks to the wealth they accumulated through trade, they were among the three main powers in the ancient Mediterranean, along with the Greeks and the Phoenicians. By the 1st century BC, however, the Etruscans had been conquered and fully absorbed into the Roman Empire. They were granted Roman citizenship in 89 BC. 

It was the Etruscans who taught the Romans to wear togas. They introduced them to hydraulic engineering, urban planning, and religious ritual. They helped Rome build aqueducts, drain marshes, and use arches and vaults in architecture. The Etruscans pioneered winemaking across the Italian peninsula. Gladiatorial games evolved directly from Etruscan funerary ritual combat events. Even “Roman” numerals were an Etruscan invention. There might never have been the glory that was Rome without its precursors, the Etruscans.

2. They had their own written language, but we can’t fully translate it.

The Etruscans were introduced to the alphabet in the 8th century BC, through contact with Greek merchants. The Etruscans adapted this script for their language. In doing so, they helped pass it on to the Romans and, eventually, to us. They even contributed a few words we still use: “military” and “person” both have Etruscan roots. Unlike Greek, however, Etruscan has no surviving language relatives. Because of this, scholars have difficulty translating it. Most of what survives are brief inscriptions on pottery, jewelry, and tomb walls.

The longest text we have, the Liber linteus zagrabiensis, is a linen manuscript from the 3rd century BC. It lists ritual sacrifices and prayers, arranged in a calendar format. It was later cut into strips and used to wrap an Egyptian mummy. Rediscovered in the 19th century, it is Europe’s oldest surviving book.

3. Their craftsmanship was unsurpassed.

Etruscan artisans were among the most skilled craftspeople of the ancient world. Etruria was rich in natural resources — including iron, copper, and tin — and the Etruscans became expert bronzesmiths. Artisans produced finely crafted bronze objects, such as mirrors, statues, thrones, and chariots, often decorated with intricate relief designs.

They were famous for their lavish gold jewelry, crafted using techniques such as filigree and granulation. In granulation, tiny gold spheres are fused onto a gold surface in intricate patterns. One bowl from 700‒650 BC is covered with more than 250,000 individual spheres.

Etruscan artists also developed their own signature ceramic: bucchero ware. Characterized by its distinctive black color, it was created by firing clay in a kiln without oxygen.

4. Etruscan women’s rights were unparalleled in the ancient world.

Etruscan women enjoyed greater rights and liberties than their Greek and Roman counterparts. They were highly literate, could inherit family property, and participated in public life, including banquets and religious rituals. Etruscan women also played essential roles in politics, family, and social spheres. After death, many received elaborate burials that recognized their status within both family and society. Etruscan women were identified in inscriptions by a double-name system. This combined their given name with their family name. It wasn’t until the 3rd to 1st centuries BC that the husband’s name was added, likely influenced by Roman practices.

5. Religion shaped everyday life.

The Roman historian Livy called the Etruscans the most religious people of antiquity. Priests read omens from the entrails of sacrificed animals and interpreted thunder, lightning, and even the flight of birds as divine signs. One artifact associated with this practice is the bronze Liver of Piacenza (2nd century BC). Unusual features on a sacrificed sheep’s liver were compared to this model and interpreted as messages from the gods.

The Etruscans worshipped many gods, some uniquely their own and others adapted from neighboring cultures. Greek deities such as Apollo and Zeus were incorporated into Etruscan religion. However, they were given new names (Aplu and Tinia, in this case), and often assigned different meanings or roles.

Their belief in the afterlife influenced their elaborate tombs. These were considered eternal homes where life’s pleasures, such as feasting and music, could continue.